Brushed DC motors have an affinity for direct current. They are designed to spin in proportion to the applied DC voltage. For example, a miniature 6-volt DC motor runs at its full rated speed when supplied with power from four AA batteries (four times 1.5 volts equals 6 volts). The motor will run slower with three AA batteries (4.5 volts) or even slower with two AA batteries (3 volts). When the speed of a robot's DC motor needs to be controlled by software, swapping batteries in and out just won't do.

To control the motor with software like CircuitPython, a special signal called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is used. Microcontrollers such as the Feather M4 Express send a software-controlled PWM signal to an external breakout board in order to control motor speed. To cause the motor to spin, the microcontroller furnishes the external motor controller board a pulsing signal which in turn sends a high-power pulse to the attached motor. The width of each pulse is set by the program code to adjust the amount of energy for the controller board to send to the attached motor. A pulse with a long duration imparts more energy to the motor, increasing the speed of the motor. A short duration pulse reduces the available energy and the motor spins more slowly. The motor sees changes in pulse energy just like when batteries are added or removed. With a little math, the pulse energy can be expressed as an “equivalent voltage” similar to battery voltage. Let’s get to know the PWM signal better.

When a controller is sending the full voltage of the power source to the motor, the motor sees a PWM signal with a duty cycle of 100%. For example, if the controller output is always at the power supply voltage level, the duty cycle is 100%; if at full voltage for 5 milliseconds (ms) during a 10ms interval period , the duty cycle calculates to 50%. A full voltage pulse for 2ms during the 10ms period has a duty cycle of 20%.

PWM equivalent voltage is equal to the power supply voltage times the duty cycle. If the power source is 5 volts, a duty cycle of 100% has an equivalent voltage of:

5v * (100% / 100) = 5 volts

A duty cycle of 20% produces the equivalent voltage:

5v * (20% / 100) = 1.0 volts

As the PWM duty cycle changes, the motor reacts to the equivalent voltage and spins the motor at a speed that is proportional to that value. A lower duty cycle slows the motor; a higher duty cycle increases motor speed.

In CircuitPython's motor control libraries, the motor’s PWM duty cycle ratio is usually called the motor’s throttle, expressed as a numeric value between 0 and 1.0 where a value of 0 stops the motor and 1.0 runs the motor at full speed. Forward motor direction is a positive throttle value (0 to +1.0). Reverse direction is a negative value (0 to -1.0).

While duty cycle controls the motor’s speed, the PWM signal’s frequency effects the efficiency of a brushed DC motor, particularly when the PWM duty cycle is less than 30%. Why does the PWM frequency play a role?